SUNFC

01

What is Sustainable Nuclear Fuel Cycle by ROSATOM

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Sustainable Nuclear Fuel Cycle (SuNFC) is a comprehensive proposal by Russian State Corporation ROSATOM for foreign customers. SuNFC allows to dispose spent nuclear fuel (SNF) at minimal cost, without imposing the burden of its accumulation and long-term storage to future generations, with extracting maximum value from SNF reprocessing products.

SuNFC is based on the best available technologies and relies on a well-developed Russian centralized SNF management system and a fleet of Russian fast neutron reactors.

SuNFC allows to implement a through-and-through process of SNF disposal: SNF is being removed from the NPP site and reprocessed, the «short-lived» fraction of radioactive waste is placed in containers.

After the exposure required to reduce residual heat generation, it is being returned to the customer’s country for mid-depth final isolation.

Sustainable NFC combines the following solutions:

• SNF reprocessing with partitioning of a «short-lived» fraction of high level radioactive waste (HLW-SL), its vitrification and technological storage in containers for subsequent return to the customer’s country (see question No.2)

• containers for the transportation and storage of SNF/HLW-SL — so-called casks, transport and packaging kits (see questions Nos.4-6);

• medium-depth borehole disposal of HLW-SL in the casks in the customer’s country (see question No. 7)

• nuclear fuel made of regenerated uranium (RepU-fuel) and uranium-plutonium fuel (U-Pu fuel) for reactors in the Russian Federation or in the customer’s country (if technically possible and economically feasible); (see questions Nos. 8-10)

it is also planned to supplement the list of services with the transmutation of minor actinides in fast neutron reactors in the Russian Federation. Federation (see question No. 11)

02

How does SNF reprocessing and RW partitioning take place?

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SNF reprocessing is a complex of chemical and technological processes aimed at removing from SNF fission products and recovering valuable nuclear materials (uranium and plutonium, which account for about 97% of the SNF mass) for reuse.

In the Russian Federation, PUREX (Plutonium-Uranium Recovery by Extraction) technology is used, which has been significantly upgraded for efficient management of radioactive waste.

For example, it is planned to isolate a «short-lived» fraction of high-level waste (HLW-SL), the activity of which is formed mainly by isotopes of caesium (Cs) and strontium (Sr) (see question No. 7). The fractions of minor actinides will be isolated as well: americium (Am), neptunium (Np), and curium (Cm) (see question No. 11). The isolation of separate RW fractions from the total volume is called partitioning.

The reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel with partitioning of radioactive waste is a key element of the SuNFC, which makes it possible to extract and use valuable nuclear materials from spent nuclear fuel and separate radioactive waste that can be isolated as safely and efficiently as possible.

03

May all types of SNF be recycled?

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All types of SNF may be reprocessed, but an assessment of the economic feasibility of such reprocessing is required

From a technological point of view, yes. ROSATOM has experience in reprocessing of all types of SNF ever produced in the USSR and the Russian Federation, including uraniumzirconium, uranium-beryllium, uranium-molybdenum and other difficult types of SNF.

Today, ROSATOM mainly reprocesses SNF from light-water reactors, since the main production lines are configured for it.

04

What solutions for storage and transportation of SNF and RW from SNF reprocessing are provided in SuNFC?

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ROSATOM solutions are unified — the same equipment can be used for long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel in the customer’s country, transportation to the Russian Federation, return, storage and (or) final isolation of the «short-lived» fraction (HLW-SL) in the customer’s country.

The SNF transportation and storage system is formed around two types of containers (see question No. 5):

• focused on transportation tasks
• focused on long-term storage tasks

Containers are placed in container storage facilities (CSF), modules that ensure heat dissipation and storage safety (see question No. 6).

The system also considers using of railway transporters and marine vessels, transshipment equipment and repair kits.

05

Which containers does ROSATOM suggest to use?

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A transport & transfer container (TTC), if simplified, is a cylinder with a diameter of about 2.5 meters and a height of 6 meters. The size of the TTC is limited by the building structures of the NPP.

The maximum weight of the loaded TTC is ~117 tons.

The surface of the container is ribbed to dissipate heat, the fins are made of stainless steel.

The TTC is designed for 18 Spent Fuel Assemblies of the VVER1000/1200/1300 type

Being used to unload spent nuclear fuel from the cooling pool of the NPP

Can provide storage of spent nuclear fuel for up to 3–5 years, necessary for the formation of shipment batch for the export of spent nuclear fuel

Effective for multiple transport operations

The increased capacity storage cask (IC SC) has a similar design and appearance, but its body is made of high-strength cast iron modified with spherical graphite and has a larger diameter of almost 3 meters.

IC SC is designed for 30 Spent Fuel Assemblies of the VVER1000/1200/1300 type or 5.4 m³ of vitrified HLW-SL

The maximum weight of the loaded UHF PV is 160 tons

Effective for long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel

Can be used for single transportation of spent nuclear fuel and HLW-SL

Suitable for placement both SNF and HLW-SL

May be used for disposal of HLW-SL in a mid-depth isolation facility as a non-returnable package and an engineering barrier (see issue No. 7)

The container body is the main safety barrier both during transportation and during long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel

06

What is the Cask Storage Facility and how long can SNF and RW be stored in it?

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Container Storage Facility (CSF) — is a basic infrastructure facility built on the customer’s territory and designed for long-term storage of containers (TTC/IC SC) with SNF / HLW-SL.

Up to 60 years

the period of safe storage of SNF in CSF
(more for HLW-SL)

CSF Provides for the construction of:

The first launch complex, so-called storage site, where SNF containers can be stored for 3–5 years. This time is enough to form a transport batch for the export of spent nuclear fuel for reprocessing.

The technological module where SNF is transferred from TTC to IC SC. The module is required in case of a delayed decision on SNF reprocessing. During overloading, operations are carried out to prepare SNF for long-term storage. The use of IC SC reduces the number of containers for long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel by about 2 times.

Storage modules — buildings that provide heat dissipation and protection from climatic impacts and external influences during long-term storage. They can be used for storage of both IC SC with SNF and IC SC with HLW-SL, if for some reason the commissioning of the middepth isolation facility is postponed.

ROSATOM has developed a standard CSF project that may be adapted to the customer’s needs and built consistently based on the external conjuncture and national solutions in the field of SNF management.

07

What to do with RW from SNF reprocessing?

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The quantity and activity of HLW-SL to be returned to the customer’s country are determined using a special methodology based on the equivalence of the activities of imported SNF and returned HLW-SL.

The principle of equivalence consists in the coincidence of the dose equivalents of imported SNF and returned HLW-SL together with the nuclear fuel manufactured using regenerated nuclear materials supplied to the nuclear power plant of the customer (if an appropriate decision is made).

The values of the dose coefficients of each isotope used in the calculations are determined based on the officially approved recommendations of Nuclear Regulator (Authority).

In practice, the equivalence principle is implemented by agreeing on a methodology for calculating the amount of returned RW depending on the characteristics of the initial SNF (initial enrichment, burnup level, exposure time etc).

The «short-lived» fraction of high-level waste (HLW-SL) is subject to return to the customer: it may be safely and economically isolated in every country where it is planned to build or operate nuclear power plants of both large and small capacity.

The activity of HLW-SL is formed mainly by isotopes of caesium137 and strontium90 with a half-life of about 30 years.

Research carried out by the Institute for the Safe Development of Nuclear Energy of the Russian Academy of Sciences has confirmed the safety of HLW-SL isolation in medium-depth isolation facility — boreholes up to 100 meters deep.

ROSATOM proposes construction of an isolation facility on the territory of the customer’s country, designed to accommodate all radioactive waste generated during the life cycle of nuclear power plants, including waste from operation and decommissioning, as well as HLW-SL returned after SNF processing.

It helps to avoid creation of a deep geological disposal facility, which is expensive and difficult in terms of finding an acceptable site and justifying safety, and allows the customer to significantly reduce the cost of SNF management.

08

What to do with the uranium and plutonium recovered during SNF reprocessing?

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In the Russian Federation, uranium and plutonium extracted during SNF reprocessing are effectively reused, which became possible due to the operation of a multi-reactor power system based on the operation of VVER, RBMK, and fast neutron reactors.

Thus, regenerated uranium is used in RBMK reactors with the prospect of use in VVER reactors soon, plutonium — in fast neutron reactor named BN800. The uranium and plutonium recovered during the reprocessing of foreign spent nuclear fuel may be effectively used in the Russian Federation’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle. by request of the customer, the option of returning valuable nuclear materials to the customer’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle may be considered.

09

Is it possible to use plutonium in fuel for VVER?

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Yes, it is. However, an assessment of the economic feasibility of such use is required.

When deciding on the use of uranium-plutonium fuel in VVER reactors, it is necessary to take into account the need to organize special protective measures at nuclear power plants (minimizing personnel contact with fuel, using reinforced containers, etc.) and licensing nuclear power plants to work with a new type of fuel.

The energy potential of plutonium is better revealed in fast neutron reactors compared to thermal neutron reactors. This is due to the peculiarities of the operating principle of such reactors and the process of interaction of plutonium with fast-spectrum neutrons.

10

How to license a nuclear power plant to run on uranium-plutonium fuel?

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From the point of view of licensing, uranium-plutonium fuel is a new type of fuel. its application requires a set of measures confirming the safety of its use in a particular reactor.

Main stages:

Calculations and modeling of fuel behavior in various conditions, supported by experimental data.
Tests in research reactors and pilot loading of small batches into power reactors.

Adaptation of the fuel path at the NPP — ensuring fuel unloading and transportation with minimal personnel contact.
Adjustment of reactor control and protection systems depending on the characteristics of the new fuel.

The set and content of the activities depend on the reactor design and the specific type of uranium-plutonium fuel.

11

What are the minor actinides and what to do with them?

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Minor actinides are americium (Am), neptunium (Np) and curium (Cm) — the products of transmutation (transformation of some chemical elements into others) of uranium and plutonium. Their total content in SNF is less than 0.1%, but it is they and their decay products that determine the long-term radiation activity and heat release of SNF or HLW from its reprocessing after 300 years of storage.

It is possible to reduce their volume and reduce the radiation hazard by converting them into other elements under the influence of neutrons and protons — the so-called afterburning, or transmutation.

432 years — the half-life of isotope ²⁴¹Am

2,1 mln years — the half-life of isotope ²³⁷Np

15,6 mln years — the half-life of isotope ²⁴⁷Cm

In the Russian Federation, transmutation of minor actinides is carried out in fast neutron reactors: BN600, BN800, and also planned in be made in reactors which are under construction and under development now: BN1200M, BREST300, SVBR.

Americium and neptunium are being transmuted on an industrial scale. Curium can be aged for 30 years before naturally decomposing into plutonium, suitable for reuse as a nuclear fuel.

In 2023, for the first time in the world, serial MOX Fuel Assembly with addition of americium (0.9%) and neptunium (0.6%) were manufactured on ROSATOM industrial equipment. in 2024, they were loaded into the reactor BN-800 and are now being irradiated. in 2026 it is planned to scale the technology to the industrial level.

12

Do Rosatom’s solutions in the field of SNF management have references?

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Yes, of course.

The reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel to ensure environmentally acceptable management of fission products and the return of regenerated nuclear materials to the NFC is the basis of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the field of spent nuclear fuel management.

A centralized SNF management system has been established in the country: two enterprises in the Rosatom State Corporation have implemented technologies for the reprocessing and technological storage of SNF.

The Russian nuclear industry has significant experience in organizing the export, reprocessing and other services in the field of SNF management for foreign nuclear power plants and research reactors with customers from the following countries:

Armenia
Belarus
Bulgaria
Hungary
Vietnam
Germany
Kazakhstan
Latvia
Libya
Poland
Romania
Serbia
Slovakia
Uzbekistan
Ukraine
Finland
Czech

Current projects

• El-Dabaa NPP (Egypt)
• Akkuyu NPP (Turkey)
• Belarusian Nuclear Power Plant (Belarus)

Under these contracts, nuclear power plants under construction based on Russian designs are provided with the equipment and solutions necessary to ensure the safety of SNF and RW management throughout the entire life cycle of nuclear power plants.

13

Why to choose SuNFC?

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SuNFC is a customizable solution.

Regardless of the size of the reactor fleet and the degree of development of the SNF management infrastructure in the customer’s country, the SNF may be «assembled» in such a way as to maximize the needs of a particular customer.

SuNFC relies on reference solutions and advanced technologies, including:

• proven radiochemical solutions to improve the efficiency and environmental friendliness of SNF reprocessing

• partitioning of radioactive waste, which allows to separate individual groups of elements and isotopes

• technologies of medium-depth RW isolation, such as a united complex of RW isolation facility for all the RW generated over the entire life cycle of nuclear power plants

• fourth generation reactor systems — fast neutron reactors that provide technologically and economically optimal consumption of plutonium extracted during SNF reprocessing and transmutation of minor actinides

SuNFC is economically beneficial.

In the case of an «open» NFC, where spent nuclear fuel is sent for final disposal without pre-processing, the customer’s costs consist not only of the current costs for long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel, but also of the future costs of development an expensive deep geological facility, including site search, justification of its safety, receiving public acceptability, construction, operation and monitoring of the facility for a long period of time.

The SuNFC solutions exclude the need to build such a facility. Even taking into account the costs of transportation and reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, the implementation of the SuNFC will not lead to an increase in the cost of generating electricity at nuclear power plants in comparison with the «open» NFC. Additional savings are associated with the possibility of reuse of valuable nuclear materials in the NFC.

The assessment of the costs of SuNFC implementing in comparison with the «open» NFC based on the initial data of a specific customer can be carried out within the framework of the feasibility study (see question No.14).

SuNFC meets the UN Sustainable Development Goals

Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy

A principled solution to the issue of SNF management increases attractiveness of nuclear energy as a clean and reliable source of energy

Goal 9: Industrialization, innovation and infrastructure

The use of advanced technologies and engineering solutions at all stages of the SNF management lifecycle

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production

SNF reprocessing allows to reuse valuable nuclear materials

Goal 15: Conservation of terrestrial ecosystems

Minimizing the volume of waste sent for disposal.

Goal 17: Partnership for sustainable development

International cooperation with customers at all stages of product development.

14

How to implement SuNFC in my country?

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Regardless of the size of the reactor fleet and the degree of development of the SNF management infrastructure in the country, the following steps are expected:

1. Feasibility study.

Analysis of foreign experience in the field of SNF management and its applicability to the situation in the country. Comparison of SNF management options according to the selected parameters, starting with its unloading from the reactor core into the cooling pools, ending with the final isolation of radioactive waste from SNF reprocessing. as a result, proposals are being made on the most optimal option for SNF management in the country and the necessary actions to implement it.

2. National strategy for the management of SNF and RW.

Development or updating of the national strategy for the management of SNF and RW, taking into account the results of the Feasibility Study.

3. Intergovernmental Agreement.

Conclusion of an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in the field of SNF management with the Russian Federation in the development of the national strategy for SNF and RW management.

4. Foreign Trade contract for ensuring the safe handling of SNF.

The conclusion and implementation of a foreign trade contract for ensuring the safe handling of SNF with an authorized organization of the Russian Federation. The subject of the contract is determined on a case-by-case basis and may include: the creation of a basic infrastructure for SNF/RW management in the country, the export of SNF to the Russian Federation, its reprocessing, technological storage and return of HLW-SL to the customer’s country in a form that does not require deep geological facility. by request of the customer and in case of technological feasibility and economic feasibility, the management of valuable nuclear materials recovered during SNF reprocessing may be provided.

15

What are the possible scenarios for the export of spent nuclear fuel for reprocessing?

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Scenario 1:

Shipments as the cooling pool fills up

• in direct railway communication, SNF export is organized using Russian casks and railway transporters

• in multimodal (river/sea + railway) transportation the construction of a simplified (launch complex) container storage facility (CSF, see question No. 6) is required at NPP site, and it is also required to complete CSF with a revolving fleet of containers of about 16 to 24 units (for 2-4-units NPP)

Scenario 2:

Delayed shipments

• Complex logistics (for example, the need for transit through third countries) or a political decision in favor of long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel require the construction of a CSF as part of a technological module and storage modules and their completion with high-capacity storage packaging sets (IC SC) and shipping containers (TTC)

Both scenarios require the construction of a medium-depth RW isolation facility (see issue No. 7). it is advisable to include it in the national system for radioactive waste management where RW from the operation and decommissioning of nuclear power plants should be finally isolated.

The preparation of the first export of spent nuclear fuel for reprocessing to the Russian Federation takes up to 10 years, so it is worth starting the study in advance